Legal Studies in Digital Age

This study aims to examine the consequences of the absence of sports law education in the curricula of physical education programs in Iranian universities and to explore the need for its integration to enhance legal literacy and professional competency in the sports sector. The research employs a scientific narrative review methodology using a descriptive-analytical approach. Academic literature, university curricula, national education policy documents, and comparative international case studies published between 2015 and 2024 were systematically reviewed. Sources were selected based on relevance to legal education in sports, curricular reform, and professional training standards. Thematic analysis was applied to extract and categorize key issues, consequences, and global trends related to sports law education. The review reveals a significant gap in the inclusion of sports law within Iran’s physical education programs at undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. Legal topics are either entirely absent or superficially embedded within unrelated courses. This omission results in multiple negative outcomes, including increased legal vulnerability for athletes and coaches, institutional risks such as non-compliance and corruption, and the production of graduates who lack essential legal literacy for professional practice. Additionally, the absence of legal education contributes to ethical failures, reduced athlete safety, and the perpetuation of discrimination and inequity in sports environments. Comparative analysis shows that other countries have successfully integrated sports law into interdisciplinary curricula, enhancing professional readiness and institutional governance. The lack of sports law education in Iranian physical education programs presents a critical challenge to the professional development, legal protection, and ethical standards of the sports system. Curricular reform and interdisciplinary integration of legal training are essential for aligning Iranian sports education with global practices and addressing the complex legal demands of modern sport.

In the contemporary era, due to increasing social complexity, the expanding role of modern mass media and cyberspace in shaping public opinion across cultural, economic, and political domains has become more significant than ever. At no point in human history has society been as politically engaged as it is today. It is likely that one of the principal causes of this politicization is the widespread development of mass communication tools. The present study was conducted using a qualitative research method and employed a library-based approach. This research seeks to examine and delve into existing sources and findings to understand the extent to which public opinion, emerging media, and cyberspace can be effective in monitoring and controlling governmental actions. A careful and critical review of the thoughts of experts in political science, law, and social sciences suggests a consensus among scholars that the Internet, media, particularly new forms of media and cyberspace, have had a profound influence on public opinion—guiding its direction, instigating both structural and partial reforms in societies, overseeing the actions of governing authorities, and influencing or altering the behavior of governmental institutions. Moreover, an analysis of relevant case studies from different societies supports this view. Given the influential power of social media in shaping public opinion, the need to establish effective mechanisms for the optimal use of these tools to strengthen democracy and promote human rights is increasingly felt.

This article examines the defense of duress and coercion in criminal proceedings and compares its application within the legal systems of Iran and the United States through a descriptive, analytical, and comparative approach. Invocation of duress and coercion as a ground for excluding criminal responsibility faces specific challenges in both legal systems. In Iranian law, the burden of proof lies with the defendant, who must demonstrate that the criminal act was committed under pressure or threat. Conversely, in the U.S. legal system, the defendant is required to provide compelling evidence indicating the existence of duress or coercion. In terms of similarities, both systems emphasize the importance of the burden of proof, and the defendant must meet certain conditions for the defense to be accepted. However, there are significant differences. In Iran, the lack of a clear judicial precedent regarding the acceptance of duress and coercion as a defense, along with the influence of social factors on judicial decisions, may result in the rejection of the defense. In contrast, in the United States, the presence of a jury allows the defendant to be exempted from criminal liability if sufficient evidence is presented. The fundamental distinction between the duress defense in Iran and the United States lies in its legal conceptualization: in the U.S., duress is treated as an affirmative defense that is examined in court and, if proven, results in exemption from criminal liability. In Iran, however, duress is considered a ground for excluding criminal responsibility and may be directly assessed by the court. Additionally, the U.S. Supreme Court has played a significant role in shaping the doctrine of duress, whereas Iranian judicial precedent in this area remains underdeveloped, and further clarification is anticipated.

This article is aimed at conducting a comparative analysis of the legislative criminal policies of Iran and the United Kingdom in the domain of financial crimes associated with cryptocurrencies. The principal objective is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of both legal systems and to offer practical recommendations for improving Iran's laws and legislative policies in confronting crypto-related offenses. The study employs a comparative legal research methodology along with legal analysis. The research is based on library sources, domestic and international laws and regulations, as well as the analysis of legal cases from both countries. Additionally, a descriptive-analytical approach is used to evaluate the impact of current laws on the prevention and control of cryptocurrency crimes. The findings indicate that the United Kingdom, through the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) and international cooperation, has succeeded in developing a comprehensive framework for cryptocurrency oversight. This framework includes anti-money laundering (AML) requirements, know-your-customer (KYC) protocols, and the application of modern technologies such as blockchain analytics. In contrast, Iran, due to the absence of comprehensive legislation and weaknesses in institutional coordination, has been unable to effectively utilize cryptocurrencies in the prevention of financial crimes. To better manage cryptocurrency-related challenges in Iran, the formulation of clear legislation, enhanced coordination among regulatory bodies, and the integration of advanced technologies are deemed essential. The experience of the United Kingdom demonstrates that striking a balance between innovation and regulation can serve as an effective strategy for combating cryptocurrency-related crimes.

Land grabbing, as one of the most significant crimes related to property and the illegal use of land, has created widespread problems in Iran’s road and urban development sector. This offense leads to disorder in land allocation, increased administrative corruption, environmental degradation, and disruption of urban and construction planning. Therefore, legislative criminal policy, as the main instrument for combating land grabbing, holds particular importance. Legislative criminal policy in this field encompasses the formulation of comprehensive laws, determination of deterrent punishments, establishment of supervisory mechanisms, and reform of judicial procedures. In Iran, although legal provisions exist to confront land grabbing, multiple challenges—including legal ambiguities, insufficient penalties, weaknesses in the implementation of justice, and deficiencies in property registration—have impeded the full realization of the policy’s goals. For effective prevention of land grabbing, in addition to legal reforms, the utilization of modern technologies such as digital cadastral systems and satellite imagery, enhanced coordination among responsible institutions, and strengthened public participation are essential. Moreover, addressing the social and cultural dimensions of this crime and raising public awareness play a key role in the success of criminal policies.

The administrative apparatus, as the mechanism through which the state fulfills its responsibilities—including the provision of public services—is a fundamental subject in legal and administrative studies. The realization of governmental objectives requires a healthy and efficient administrative system. In addition to the need for qualified and honest personnel, the integrity and efficiency of administration also depend on the existence of effective guarantees and enforcement mechanisms. The principles of administrative hierarchy and administrative justice are among the guarantees embedded in legal systems to ensure administrative efficiency and integrity. According to the principle of administrative hierarchy, a higher-ranking authority supervises the performance of subordinate administrative staff to ensure that administrative actions are executed within the legal framework and scope of authority. Based on the principle of administrative justice, legal safeguards are envisioned to adopt, amend, revise, or annul administrative actions in pursuit of the public good and legal compliance. One of the intersections of the principles of hierarchy and administrative justice is the domain of administrative adjudication. This article seeks to examine, with due regard to the principle of administrative justice, the jurisdiction of higher administrative authorities to impose disciplinary measures on their subordinates within the administrative legal systems of Iran and Iraq, through a descriptive and analytical study of the governing laws in both countries. The adoption of administrative law frameworks derived from Continental European systems—particularly France—has led to similarities in the authority of higher administrative officials to discipline offending employees in both countries. However, in contrast to France, the guarantees of administrative justice in this type of adjudication are questionable due to lack of transparency, challenges in the right to defense, and discrimination. Furthermore, the existence of the Muhasaba system in Iraq, which enables political parties and movements to exert influence over the state and its functions, has introduced greater challenges for Iraq's system of administrative adjudication and justice.

In this study, the author examines the concept of electronic sale within the legal frameworks of Iran and England. Electronic sale is one of the contemporary phenomena that has evolved as a result of technological advancement. Today, merchants engage in commerce through electronic communications. Since a healthy and dynamic economy is considered one of the hallmarks of a country’s progress and development, understanding the laws governing electronic sales in today’s world is of great significance. Moreover, if traders and their legal representatives are thoroughly familiar with the laws of their foreign trade partners, they will be in a better position to conclude valid contracts. The author explores the strengths and weaknesses of each of the legal systems of Iran and England in regard to electronic sale. The study points out that, under the Iranian legal system, the moment of dispatch of acceptance constitutes the moment of contract formation, while in the English legal system, it is the moment of receipt of acceptance that determines the formation of the contract. According to Iranian law, legitimacy is recognized under Clause 4 of Article 190 and Article 217 of the Civil Code. The principle of party autonomy is enshrined in Article 967 of the Iranian Civil Code, and the doctrine of the delayed application of the governing law in electronic sale is accepted. In contrast, under the English legal system, the law of the place of dispatch of acceptance is deemed the governing law for electronic sale. It is worth noting that England has acceded to the UNCITRAL Model Law. The UNCITRAL Model Law refers extensively to provisions related to electronic commerce in many of its articles. It is regarded as one of the most significant international instruments and has been adopted by many countries worldwide. Therefore, in this study, the author attempts, through a descriptive-analytical research method, to examine the legal provisions related to electronic sale.

Across the globe, discourse surrounding the internet consistently centers around a fundamental tension between two competing principles: the right to freedom of expression and free networking on the one hand, and the sovereign right of states to control public order and safeguard national interests on the other. This study, conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and library-based sources, investigates state-imposed restrictive interventions, with a particular focus on the current challenges facing the Islamic Republic of Iran. It was observed that the central issue in Iran's cyberspace—mirroring that of many other countries—is the conflict between internet sovereignty and network power (in a general sense) versus national sovereignty and authority. The findings of the study indicate that the state’s negative intervention through filtering tools has proven ineffective. Therefore, there is a critical need to redesign the relationship between the state’s sovereignty and citizens’ rights to access cyberspace. Redefining this relationship entails a dual approach encompassing both “governance with cyberspace” and “governance over cyberspace,” wherein a proper balance must be established between national sovereignty and internet sovereignty (arising from networked power). Accordingly, the redefinition of these relations should, in terms of purpose, aim to guarantee national independence and preserve the country’s sovereign integrity, and, structurally and operationally, be realized through the development and expansion of the National Information Network (NIN). The principal component in formulating a desirable policy framework for cyberspace governance in the Islamic Republic lies in preserving sovereignty through a redesigned relationship between the state and cyberspace, while simultaneously protecting the internet rights of citizens. This redesign, which serves as the cornerstone of the Islamic Republic’s cyberspace policy theory, must also be supported by additional elements, including appropriate tools and governance processes.